بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
اقدم لكم مقطع لفضيلة الشيخ : صالح عواد المغامسي .
صراط الذين أنعمت عليهم
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
الحمد لله رب العالمين , والصلاة والسلام على اشرف الانبياء وسيد المرسلين نبينا محمد عليه افضل الصلاة واتم التسليم . وبعد
اقدم لكم مطويه نقلتها من موقع وذكر .
{صِرَاطَ الَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ} فيها إشارة وبشارة للمهتدي أنه ليس وحده على الطريق، وأنه وإن كان غريباً بين العابثين من البشر فإن طريقه مليء بالصالحين الذين حازوا على نعمة، فليأنس بذلك... بوستر مجانيي للطباعة..
لتحميل ملف pdf : أضغط على الصوره بالاسفل :
المبدع في شرح المقنع
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
اقدم لكم كتاب : المبدع في شرح المقنع
للتحميل اضغط على الصوره
رقية شرعية
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
الحمد لله رب العالمين والصلاة والسلام على اشرف الانبياء وسيد المرسلين نبينا محمد عليه افضل الصلاة واتم التسليم
اما بعد :
اقدم لكم رقية شرعية نقلتها من موقع تيفي قران www.tvquran.com
بصوت : كذا شيخ
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وفي الختام لا تنسوني من دعائكم .
سبحان الله وبحمده سبحان الله العظيم .
فقه العبادات
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
الحمد لله رب العالمين الرحمن الرحيم مالك يوم الدين , والصلاة والسلام على اشرف الانبياء وسيد المرسلين نبينا محمد عليه افضل الصلاة واتم التسليم .
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
أقدم لكم كتاب جميل ومفيد عسى الله ينفعنا به .
وهو كتاب : فقه العبادات
لفضيلة الشيخ : محمد بن صالح العثيمين ( رحمه الله )
وتم نقل الكتاب من موقعه .
لتحميل الكتاب : اضغط على الصوره
لتصفح :
| فهرس الكتاب |
| · المقدمة |
| · فتاوى العقيدة |
| · فتـاوى الطهارة |
| · فتاوى الصلاة |
| · فتاوى الزكاة |
| · فتاوى الصيام |
| · فتاوى الحج |
احرص ان يكون اخر عهدك بالدنيا طاعه للشيخ صالح المغامسي
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
أقدم لكم : احرص ان يكون اخر عهدك بالدنيا طاعه للشيخ صالح المغامسي
فضل الجهاد والمجاهدين
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
أقدم لكم .
عنوان الكتاب : فضل الجهاد والمجاهدين
تأليف : فضيلة الشيخ : عبد العزيز بن باز (رحمة الله)
Bmjv‡gi msw¶ß cwiPq t evsjv fvlvq Abyev`K t gynv¤§v` Be&ivnxg
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
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{ومن يبتغ غير الإسلام ديناً فلن يقبل منه وهو في الآخرة من
الخاسرين}
.[ [سورة آل عمران، الآية:
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mr;r%l;b vr;rupf;if nra;gtuhfTk; > my;yh:;tpd; mDkjp ngw;W mtd; ghy;
miof;Fk; miog;ghsuhfTk; xsp tPRk; tpsf;fhfTk; mDg;gg;gl;l K:k;kJ gpd;
mg;Jy;yh:; ]y;yy;yh:_ miy:p t]y;yk; mtHfs; kPJ cz;lhfl;Lk; .
my;yh:_j;jMyh my;FHMdpNy $Wfpd;whd; ...
“ vtH ,];yhk; my;yhj NtnwhU khHf;fj;ij jdJ rkakhf Mf;fpf; nfhs;fpd;whNwh mJ
mtuplkpUe;J Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg; gl khl;lhJ . NkYk; mtH kWikapy; e\;lkile;Njhupy;
cs;stuhf Mfp tpLthH .”
Scurtă Introducere în Islam
În numele lui Allah Cel Milostiv şi Îndurător
Laudă lui Allah Stăpânul lumilor şi pacea şi binecuvântarea
fie asupra conducătorului tuturor trimişilor, Profetul Muhammad
, şi asupra familiei şi a nobililor camarazi ai săi.
Islamul are la bază mărturisirea că: “Nu există alt dumnezeu în
afară de Allah şi într-adevăr Muhammad este trimisul lui Allah “,
mărturisire cu inima , limba ( rostirea ) şi faptele . Aceasta
întruchipează credinţa în cei şase stâlpi ai imanului şi înfăptuirea
celor cinci stâlpi ai Islamului.
NJOHJE E PËRGJITHSHME ME ISLAMIN
Me emrin e All-llahut
Gjithmëshirshmit Mëshirëbërës
NJOHJE E PËRGJITHSHME ME
ISLAMIN
Falënderimi i takon vetëm Allllahut,
Zotit të botëve, paqa dhe shpëtimi i
All-llahut qofshin mbi prijësin e të
dërguarve, Pejgamberin tonë Muhammedin
dhe mbi familjen, shokët e tij, e pasuesit. Në
vijim:
ISLAMI: Është dëshmia “La ilahe
il-lall-llah, Muhamedun resulull-llah” (Nuk
ka të Adhuruar i Cili meriton adhurimin
përveç All-llahut, dhe se Muhammedi është
i Dërguari i Tij), me zemër, gjuhë e
gjymtyrë. Islami përfshinë besimin në
gjashtë shtyllat e besimit, zbatimin i pesë
shtyllave të Islamit e të gjitha këto me
Gjithmëshirshmit Mëshirëbërës
NJOHJE E PËRGJITHSHME ME
ISLAMIN
Falënderimi i takon vetëm Allllahut,
Zotit të botëve, paqa dhe shpëtimi i
All-llahut qofshin mbi prijësin e të
dërguarve, Pejgamberin tonë Muhammedin
dhe mbi familjen, shokët e tij, e pasuesit. Në
vijim:
ISLAMI: Është dëshmia “La ilahe
il-lall-llah, Muhamedun resulull-llah” (Nuk
ka të Adhuruar i Cili meriton adhurimin
përveç All-llahut, dhe se Muhammedi është
i Dërguari i Tij), me zemër, gjuhë e
gjymtyrë. Islami përfshinë besimin në
gjashtë shtyllat e besimit, zbatimin i pesë
shtyllave të Islamit e të gjitha këto me
bamirësi.
КРАТКОЕ ОЗНАКОМЛЕНИЕ С ИСЛАМОМ
КРАТКОЕ
ОЗНАКОМЛЕНИЕ
С ИСЛАМОМ
ОЗНАКОМЛЕНИЕ
С ИСЛАМОМ
Хвала Аллаху господу миров и да будет милость
Аллаха над его рабом и посланником нашим
пророком Мухаммедом и над его семьей и
сподвижниками.
Ислам - это свидетельство о том, что нет божества
кроме Аллаха и то, что Мухаммед его посланник,
сердцем, словом и делом. И оно включает в себя
шесть основ веры, пять столпов Ислама и степень
милости (Ихсан). Это последнее божественное
послание, которое было ниспослано
завершающему из пророков и посланников
Мухаммеду сыну Абдуллы (да благословит его
Аллаха над его рабом и посланником нашим
пророком Мухаммедом и над его семьей и
сподвижниками.
Ислам - это свидетельство о том, что нет божества
кроме Аллаха и то, что Мухаммед его посланник,
сердцем, словом и делом. И оно включает в себя
шесть основ веры, пять столпов Ислама и степень
милости (Ихсан). Это последнее божественное
послание, которое было ниспослано
завершающему из пророков и посланников
Мухаммеду сыну Абдуллы (да благословит его
عاشوراء وهزيمة أعداء الله
نبذة :
عاشوراء تذكير لأهل الأرض عامة بهزيمة الله لأعدائه يوم أظهر الله موسى عليه السلام على فرعون، وهذا يجدد في النفس الأمل ويبعث التفاؤل... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
مرات التحميل : 42
لتحميل البوستر بدقة الطباعةpdf/1.3 MB
عاشوراء تذكير لأهل الأرض عامة بهزيمة الله لأعدائه يوم أظهر الله موسى عليه السلام على فرعون، وهذا يجدد في النفس الأمل ويبعث التفاؤل... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
لتحميل البوستر بدقة الطباعةpdf/1.3 MB
عاشوراء... وتخليد لذكرى هلاك الطغاة
نبذة :
إن تخليد ذكرى مصارع وسقوط الطغاة وإن كان فيه درس وعبرة وعظة للمستكبرين في كل زمان ومكان أن الله لا يهمل وإن أمهل، وأن بروجهم المشيدة ستنهار عليهم، وتكون قبورا لهم، لكن الدرس الأعظم هو لمن استُضعفوا، وظُلموا، فيوقنوا أن الله منجز وعده لا محالة، وأن حق على الله نصرَ عباده المؤمنين، والتمكين لهم في الأرض، ويريهم في الطغاة والمستكبرين ما تقر به عيونهم، وتثلج به صدروهم... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
لتحميل البوستر بدقة الطباعةpdf/1 MB
منقول
إن تخليد ذكرى مصارع وسقوط الطغاة وإن كان فيه درس وعبرة وعظة للمستكبرين في كل زمان ومكان أن الله لا يهمل وإن أمهل، وأن بروجهم المشيدة ستنهار عليهم، وتكون قبورا لهم، لكن الدرس الأعظم هو لمن استُضعفوا، وظُلموا، فيوقنوا أن الله منجز وعده لا محالة، وأن حق على الله نصرَ عباده المؤمنين، والتمكين لهم في الأرض، ويريهم في الطغاة والمستكبرين ما تقر به عيونهم، وتثلج به صدروهم... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
منقول
عاشوراء.. يوم إظهار الحق على الباطل
نبذة :
لما قدم رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم المدينة، واليهود تصوم عاشوراء، فسألهم فقالوا: "هذا اليوم الذي ظهر فيه موسى على فرعون"، فقال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم: "نحن أولى بموسى منهم، فصوموه" [رواه البخاري]... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
لتحميل البوستر بدقة الطباعةpdf/711.1 KB
لما قدم رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم المدينة، واليهود تصوم عاشوراء، فسألهم فقالوا: "هذا اليوم الذي ظهر فيه موسى على فرعون"، فقال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم: "نحن أولى بموسى منهم، فصوموه" [رواه البخاري]... بوستر مجاني للطباعة...
MENGENAL ISLAM
Segala puji bagi Allah, Tuhan semesta
alam. Semoga shalawat dan salam tercurah
untuk imam para rasul, nabi kita
Muhammad, beserta keluarga dan para
shahabatnya .
Islam adalah syari’at Allah terakhir yang
diturunkan-Nya kepada penutup para nabi
dan rasul, Muhammad bin Abdullah
shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam. Islam
merupakan satu-satunya agama yang benar .
O Islam
O Islamالإسلام
الإسلام أحد الأديان السماوية وآخرها ، والمهيمن عليها
O Islam é uma das religiões divinas, a derradeira que predomina sobre as outras religiões.
،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،
من خصائص شريعة الإسلام
Particularidades da Lei Islâmica:
الإسلام جاء بشريعة يسيرة، عادلة، تحقق الكرامة والأمن للإنسان
O Islam proporcionou uma livre e fácil lei que garante a paz e a dignidade do ser humano.
،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،
بماذا يؤمن المسلمون ؟
Em que os muçulmanos creem?
يؤمن المسلمون بأن جمال الكون، ونظامه البديع يدلان على وجود خالق عظيم له
Os muçulmanos creem que a beleza do Universo e sua soberba ordem é uma prova da existência do Poderoso Criador.
،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،
بماذا يؤمن المسلمون ؟
Em que os muçulmanos creem?
يؤمن المسلمون بأن عظمة السماء والأرض تدل على عظمة الخالق لها
Os muçulmanos creem que a grandeza dos céus e da terra é uma prova da Magnitude de seu Criador.
،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،،
بماذا يؤمن المسلمون ؟
Em que os muçulmanos creem?
يؤمن المسلمون بأن انتظام حياة المخلوقات الحية وتناسقها مع غير الحية تدل على أن الخالق إله واحد لا شريك له
Os muçulmanos creem que a organização uniforme dos seres humanos e sua coordenação com os não vivos é uma prova de que o Criador é Um só Que não possui semelhantes.
يؤمن المسلمون بوحدانية الإله؛ لأن وجود أكثر من إله يجعل الحياة غير منتظمة وغير متناسقة فتكون النتيجة فساد الكون
Os muçulmanos acreditam na Unicidade de Deus, porque a existência de mais Um Deus resultaria em uma vida desorganizada e sem coordenação que corromperá todo o universo
这就是伊斯兰
تمهيد
前言
لماذا خلقنا ؟
我们因何被造？
ما هو الاسلام ؟
伊斯兰是什么？
قصة الخلق
人类的故事
النبي محمد صلى الله عليه وسلم
先知穆罕默德
نبذة عن نسبه ، وحياته صلى الله عليه وسلم
先知穆圣生平简介
من أخلاق النبي محمد صلى الله عليه وسلم
先知的优美品性
من معجزاتته صلى الله عليه وسلم
穆圣的奇迹
أسس الدين الإسلامي
伊斯兰的基本信仰
العبادة في الإسلام
伊斯兰教的功修
من خصائص دين الإسلام
伊斯兰教的特色
من محاسن الدين الإسلامي
伊斯兰的优越性
اليوم الآخر
末日
المرأة في الإسلام
伊斯兰的妇女
كيف تدخل في دين الإسلام
怎样加入伊斯兰
عاشوراء وتنوع النصر على الأعداء
نبذة :
عاشوراء دليل على تنوع النصر بالنسبة للمسلمين، فقد لا يكون النصر على الأعداء بهزيمتهم والغنيمة منهم، بل أحياناً يكون النصر عليهم بهلاكهم وكفاية المسلمين شرهم كما حدث مع موسى -عليه السلام-، وكما حدث مع النبي -صلى الله عليه وسلم- في الخندق... وستر مجاني للطباعة...
عاشوراء دليل على تنوع النصر بالنسبة للمسلمين، فقد لا يكون النصر على الأعداء بهزيمتهم والغنيمة منهم، بل أحياناً يكون النصر عليهم بهلاكهم وكفاية المسلمين شرهم كما حدث مع موسى -عليه السلام-، وكما حدث مع النبي -صلى الله عليه وسلم- في الخندق... وستر مجاني للطباعة...
| لتحميل البوستر بدقة الطباعة | pdf/1.4 MB |
صوم عاشوراء يكفر السنة الماضية
عن أبي قتادة رضي اللَّه عنه ، أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: " صيام يوم عاشوراء، أحتسب
على اللَّه أن يكفر السنة التي قبله" ....أخرجه مسلم
حمل المطوية وانشر فضل عاشوراء لغيرك ..
pdf/4.6 MB
نص المطوية :
بسم الله.. والحمدلله والصَّلاة والسَّلام على رسول الله وعلى آله وصحبه ومن والاه.. وبعد:
قال -تعالى-: {قُلْ بِفَضْلِ اللَّـهِ وَبِرَحْمَتِهِ فَبِذَٰلِكَ فَلْيَفْرَحُوا} [يونس: 58].
أيُّها المسلمون:
يوم (عاشوراء) هو اليوم العاشر من محرم.. وهو يوم علَّمنا النَّبيُّ صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- العمل الَّذى ينبغي علينا فعله فيه، لنيل مرضاة الله –تعالى وهو (الصيام).. وكذالك أمر النَّبيُّ -صلَّى الله عليه
وسلَّم- بمخالفة اليهود بصيام يوم قبله فعن ابن عباس -رضي الله عنه- قال: قال رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-: «لئن بقيت إلى قابل -أي السَّنة القادمة- لأصومنَّ التَّاسع» [رواه مسلم 1134].
فائدة: سُمِّي عاشوراء: لأنَّه اليوم الَّذي يقع في العاشر منَ الشَّهر، كأن يقال، تاسوعاء: أي اليوم
الَّذي يقع في التَّاسع من أيِّ شهرٍ، ثاموناء: أي اليوم الَّذي يقع في الثَّامن من أيِّ شهرٍ.. وهكذا..
أيُّها الأحبَّة:
رددنا منذ سنوات.. ولا زلنا نردد.. بأنَّ يوم عاشوراء: يوم الفرح والسَّرَّاء.. وليس يوم حزن والبكاء.. وإنَّنا
نؤكد على صحَّة هذه العبارة.. ذلك أنَّنا نملك عليها دليلًا: صحيحًا.. قاطعًا.. من حديث رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-، فعن ابن عباس -رضي الله عنه- قال:«قدم النَّبيُّ -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- المدينة،
فرأى اليهود تصوم يوم عاشوراء، فقال: «ما هذا؟» قالوا: هذا يومٌ صالحٌ، هذا يوم نجى الله بني إسرائيل من عدوهم، فصامه موسى. قال: «فأنا أحق بموسى منكم»، فصامه وأمر بصيامه [متفقٌ عليه].
وفي بعض الرِّوايات أنَّ موسى -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- صامه شكرًا لله -تعالى-.
إذًا يوم عاشوراء هو:
أوَّلًا: يوم الفرح والسَّرَّاء والشُّكر لله -تعالى-..
ألم يقل النَّبيُّ -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- عن المؤمن: «إن أصابته سرَّاء شكر» [رواه مسلم 2999].
ثانيًا: يومٌ صالحٌ..
وإذا لم يفرح الإنسان بالأيَّام الصَّالحة قمتي يفرح إذًا..؟؟
ثالثًا: حصلت فيه نعمةٌ عظيمةٌ لنبيِّنا موسى -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- وهي نجاته، ونجاة قومه.. وإغراق عدوه فرعون وجنده.. فهي ذكرى سعيدة..
ثمَّ أليس الإنسان عندما يتذكر نجاة من يحبّ فإنَّه يكون: مسرورًا وفرحًا..!!؟؟ وهل رأيت -أخي الحبيب
- إنسانًا، يشكر ربَّه على نعمه أنعمها عليه -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- يشكرها وهو غضبانٌ..!! أو حزينٌ..!! فالشاكر الحامد (على النِّعمة) مسرورٌ.. وفرحانٌ.. ولابد..
رابعًا: رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- فرح بهذا اليوم الصَّالح.. وعبَّر عن فرحته بالصِّيام -كما في
سننه وعادته صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- وأمر أصحابه والمسلمين جميعًا بالفرح..
وأن يعبروا عن فرحهم بالصِّيام، مع مخالف اليهود.
خامسًا: كلُّ علماء المسلمين قالوا.. بأنَّ يوم عاشوراء: يوم الفرح والسَّرَّاء.. وليس يوم الحزن والبكاء.. لأنَّهم كلَّهم قالوا: "إذا صحَّ الحديث فهو مذهبي". وكلُّ الأحاديث الَّتي استدللنا بها صحيحةٌ.. بفضل
الله -تعالى-.
فائدةٌ: معجزةٌ قرآنيةٌ.. وحقيقةٌ تاريخيةٌ عظيمةٌ.. حدثت في يوم عاشوراء.
أيُّها الأحبَّة: اعلموا أنَّ صيام يوم عاشوراء إنَّما كان شكرًا لله -تعالى- على نجاة بنى إسرائيل، وإغراق عدو الله (فرعون).. وفرعون هو لقب ملوك مصر الَّذين كانوا في عهد موسي -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-
مثل لقب: الملك ..الأمير.. والرَّئيس.. وغيرها من الألقاب.. وفي عام 1981 شُكِّلت لجنةٌ طبِّيَّةٌ؛
لدراسة إحدى المومياءات الفرعونيَّة المصرية (والمومياء هي الجثث المُحنَّطة)، برئاسة الطَّبيب الفرنسي موريس بوكاي، وخَلُصَت الدِّراسة إلى أنَّ تلك المومياء الَّتي أُجري البحث العلمي عليها
تعود لرجل مات غرقًا..!! وليس موتًا طبيعيًّا كما كان يعتقد..ََََ!!
وقد ذهل الطَّبيب الفرنسي عندما علم أنَّ القرآن الكريم يخبر عن أحد الفراعنة أنَّه مات غرقًا.. وأنَّه محفوظٌ من أجل العبرة الاتعاظ..!!
ممَّا يؤكد أنَّ هذه الجثَّة تعود لذالك الفرعون ذاته، الَّذي أغرقه الله -تعالى- وجاء ذكره في القرآن
الكريم..!! ممَّا أدَّى إلى إسلام الطَّبيب الفرنسي..!!
الله أكبر.. وصدق الله العظيم إذ يقول:
{فَالْيَوْمَ نُنَجِّيكَ بِبَدَنِكَ لِتَكُونَ لِمَنْ خَلْفَكَ آيَةً ۚ وَإِنَّ كَثِيرًا مِّنَ النَّاسِ عَنْ آيَاتِنَا لَغَافِلُونَ} [يونس: 92].
ملامح فرعون واضحة تمامًا لتتحقَّق المعجزة القرآنيَّة..ََ!! رغم مرور ثلاث آلاف سنة..!! الله أكبر..
ملاحظة: لاحظ أخي الحبيب: حتَّى شعر الرَّأس.. والحواجب.. لازال في مكانه الطَّبيعي..!! وكذا الشَّرايين..!! والأظافر..!! حقًّا إنَّ الله على كلِّ شيءٍ قديرٌ..
يوم عاشوراء: يوافق ذكرى استشهاد الحسين -رضي الله عنه-..
فما هو الموقف الحق من: مقتله -رضي الله عنه-..!!
قال ابن كثير-رحمه الله-: "فكلِّ مسلمٍ ينبغي أن يحزنه قتل الحسين -رضي الله عنه- فإنَّه من سادات المسلمين، وعلماء الصَّحابة وابن بنت رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-، الَّتي هي أفضل بناته،
وقد كان عابدًا وسخيًّا ولكن لا يحسن (أي يحرم) ما يفعله الناس من إظهار: الجزع والحزن: الَّذي
لعلَّ أكثر تصنُّعًا ورياءً وقد كان أبوه أفضل منه فقُتل، وهم لا يتخذون مقتله مأتمًا كيوم مقتل الحسين
فإنَّ أباه قُتل يوم الجمعة وهو خارج إلى صلاة الفجر في السَّابع عشر من رمضان سنة أربعين، وكذالك عثمان كان أفضل من على عند أهل السُّنَّة والجماعة، وقد قتل وهو محصورٌ في داره في أيام التَّشريق من شهر ذي الحجّة سنة ست وثلاثون نوقد ذبح من الوريد إلى الوريد، ولم يتخذ النَّاس يوم قتله مأتمًا، وكذلك عمر ابن الخطاب في المحراب في صلاة الفجر ويقرأ القرآن ولم يتخذ النَّاس يوم قتلة مأتمًا، وكذالك الصِّديق كان أفضل منه ولم يتخذ النَّاس يوم وفاته مأتمًا -رضي الله عنهم أجمعين-، ورسول
الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم- سيِّد ولد آدم في الدُّنيا والآخرة وقد قبضة الله إليه كما مات الأنبياء قبله
(-صلوات الله تعالى وسلامه عليهم- ولم يتخذ أحدًا يوم وموتهم مأتمًا.." انتهى.
موقف المسلمين من ذكرى: استشهاد الحسين -رضي الله عنه-
أيُّها المسلمون: كلنا نحزن لمقتل الحسين ومن معه -رضي الله عنهم- والحسين قتل مظلومًا وما كان ينبغي أن يقتل، ولكنَّه قدر الله، وقد قتل ووقعت الفاجعة والمصيبة العظيمة، فماذا يجب علينا أن نفعل..؟؟
لو كنَّا في زمانه لكان لزامًا علينا أن نطالب بإنزال القصاص العادل فيمن نفذوا تلك الجريمة النَّكراء، أمَّا
أننا بعد تلك الحادثة بأكثر من ثلاثة عشر قرنًا فالواجب علينا هو أن لا نرضى بمقتله، وأن نسترجع
قائلين (إنَّا لله وإنَّا إليه راجعون)، ولا يجوز أن نحمل إثم هذه الجريمة لغير من نفذوها قال -تعالى-:
{وَلَا تَزِرُ وَازِرَةٌ وِزْرَ أُخْرَىٰ} [فاطر: 18].
أيُّها الأحبَّة: يجب على كلِّ مسلمٍ أن يعلم الحقائق التَّالية.. فيما يتعلق باستشهاد الحسين
-رضي الله عنه-:
أوَّلًا: الحسين -رضي الله عنه- مات شهيدًا.. وما أعظم ما أعدَّ الله -عزَّ وجلَّ- للشُّهداء من ثوابٍ
وكرامةٍ.. قال -تعالى-: {وَلَا تَحْسَبَنَّ الَّذِينَ قُتِلُوا فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّـهِ أَمْوَاتًا ۚ بَلْ أَحْيَاءٌ عِندَ رَبِّهِمْ يُرْزَقُونَ
﴿169﴾ فَرِحِينَ بِمَا آتَاهُمُ اللَّـهُ مِن فَضْلِهِ} [آل عمران: 169-170].
فالله -تعالى- أخبر عنِ الشُّهداء بأنَّهم :فرحون.. فرحون.. أفلا نفرح لفرحهم ..!!؟؟ أفلا نفرح
لفرحهم..!!؟؟
ثانيًا: استشهاد الحسين -رضي الله عنه- في يوم عاشوراء.. لا يغيِّر.. ولا ينسخ.. حديث رسول الله
-صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-..!! بل يبقي عاشوراء يومٌ صالحٌ..
رضي من رضي..!! وسخط من سخط..!!
تنبيهٌ: ولوتصوَّرنا أنَّ أحدًا من الصَّحابة -رضي الله عنهم- استشهد في يوم عيد الفطر أوِ النَّحر..
-وبالتَّأكيد وقع ذالك،كما وقع لأمير المؤمنين عثمان ابن عفان رضي الله عنه- فهل يسوِّغ للمسلمين
أن يحولوا يوم العيد الَّذى نصَّ الله -تعالى- عليه صراحة بأنَّه: عيدٌ للمسلمين....هل يسوِّغ لهم
أن يحولوه إلى حزنٍ..!!؟؟ لأنَّ صحابيًّا استشهد فيه...!!؟؟
(مع حفظنا الشَّديد لمكانة الصَّحابة -رضي الله عنهم- في قلوبنا).
ثالثًا: لا يجوز اللطم والنِّياحة:
لا يجوز لمن يخاف الله –عزَّ وجلَّ- إذا تذكَّر استشهاد الحسين ومن معه -رضي الله عنهم-، أن يقوم
بلطم الخدود، وشقِّ الجيوب، والدَّعوى بدعوى الجاهلية، قال النَّبيُّ -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-:
«ليس منَّا من لطم الخدود، وشقّ الجيوب، ودعا بدعوى الجاهلية»[متفقٌ عليه].
وقال أبو موسى الأشعري -رضي الله عنه-: "أنا بريءٌ ممَّن برىء منه رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه
وسلَّم، إن رسول الله -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّ-م بريءٌ من الصَّالقة، والحالقة، والشاقة" [متفقٌ عليه].
والصَّالقة هي الَّتي يصيح بصوتٍ عالٍ مرتفعٍ عند المصيبة، وكذا الحالقة الَّتي تحلق شعرها، والشَّاقَّة الَّتي تشقُّ ثوبها.. وقال –أيضًا صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-: «النَّائحة إذا لم تتب قبل موتها، تقام يوم القيامة وعليها سربال من قطران، ودرع من جرب» [رواه مسلم 934].
وقال -أيضًا عليه الصَّلاة والسَّلام-: «لا يحل لامرأةٍ تؤمن بالله واليوم الآخر أن تحدّ على ميتٍ فوق
ثلاث ليالٍ إلا على زوج أربعة أشهر وعشرًا» [متفقٌ عليه].
رابعًا: موقف آل البيت الكرام -رضي الله عنهم- من ذكرى كربلاء:
أيُّها الأحبَّة: ما عرف عن آل البيت الكرام، ولا عن غيرهم من أئمَّة الهدى -رحمهم الله تعالى- أنَّهم
لطموا أو شقَّوا أو صاحوا -وحاشاهم أن يفعلوا ذالك في هذه الذِّكرى- فما علم أنَّ عليًّا بن الحسين
أو ابنه محمدًا أو ابنه جعفر أو موسي بن جعفر أنهم فعلوا ذلك.. فهؤلاء هم قدوتنا -رحمهم الله
تعالى-.
تنبيهٌ: كثيرٌ من المسلمين يظنُّ أن ترك الكلام عن هذه البدع (المنكرات التي تحدث في عاشوراء)
يظنُّ أنَّ تركه أولى.. درء للمفاسد..!! والجواب على ذلك هو: أنَّ الاستدلال بهذه القاعدة، استدلال
في غير محلِّه، ذلك أنَّها تعمل عندما يكون التَّرجيح بين المتساويات.. فَيُقدَّم الدَّرء على الجلب.. وأمَّا عندما يكون الكلام عن البدعة والسُّنَّة.. فالبدعة تحارب.. والسُّنَّة هي الحقّ الَّذي لابدّ منه.. ولا محيد عنه.. ثمَّ لماذا يطالب أهل الحقّ بالتَّنازل عن حقِّهم لصالح أهل الباطل..!!؟؟
ولماذا لا يطالب بتغيير الباطل وتركه..؟؟ وهذا هو الصَّواب..!!
وأخيرًا: نصيحةٌ.. ونداء:
أوَّلًا: نهيب بأولئك البسطاء الَّذين نشأوا متأثرين: بآبائهم.. وأمَّهاتهم.. ومجتمعهم.. ومحيطهم الَّذي
تربوا فيه.. أن يحكموا على هذه القضية: بعقلٍ.. ورويةٍ.. وحريةٍ..
على هدى كتاب الله -تعالى-.. وسنَّة نبيِّه -صلَّى الله عليه وسلَّم-، فهي أخطر قضية في حياة
مسلمٍ...-لأنَّها قضية الدِّين- وهم مسئولون عنها يوم القيامة.. فانتبهوا.. وتداركوا.. واحذروا..
ثانيًا: نهيب بالَّذين يعرفون الحقيقة منهم أن ينصحوا: عوامهم.. وبسطاءهم.. ويوجههم إلي: الحقِّ والصَّواب.. ويأمروهم بالمعروف ..وينهوهم عن المنكرات الَّتي يفعلها البعض منهم..!! حتَّى ينالوا الأجر العظيم من ذلك.. فقد أخذ العهد على أهل العلم أن يبيِّنوا: الحقَّ.. والدِّين للنَّاس.. ولا يشتروا به ثمنًا قليلًا.. وإلا حملوا وزرهم.. وأوزار مع أوزارهم..!!
نسأل الله -تعالى- أن يهدينا والمسلمين جميعًا إلى سواء السَّبيل.. إنَّه وليُّ ذلك والقادر عليه.
ألا هل بلغت.. اللهمَّ فاشهد..
مركز وذكر
وكتبه أخوكم: أبو عبد الله
سيِّد فؤاد بن سيِّد عبد الرَّحمن الرّفاعي الحسيني
منقول من ابو غلا
A Scientific and Material Speech to this who does not believe in Muhammad the Messenger of Allah
Mocking Allah, His verses and His Messenger has become a normal thing nowadays and it comes in most cases from abroad, where atheists claim that Islam is a religion of underdevelopment, terrorism and ignorance. That's why the enemies of Islam continued to mock its teachings, claiming that they have become out of date and do not fit the times!
Glorified be Allah! Has freedom of expression become, from their point of view, their freedom to mock the greatest creature of Allah (PBUH)?
However, apparently, those have not found any scientific thing to criticize Islam for; thus, they tended to use these desperate cartoons. They failed to extract any scientific or linguistic mistake from the Noble Qur'an or the ahadith (speeches) of the greatest Messenger to convince their followers about it, except these cartoons, which reflect their bankruptcy.
We have the right to express our opinion about such things, but, we do not mock their prophets, Moses and Jesus, peace be upon them, as they are quit of them and their deeds and because we do not differentiate between these honored prophets, as they are all messengers from Allah (Exalted be He).
But, before doing so, let's listen to this saying of Allah (Exalted be He) about those people and the like of them:
"Surely the ones who hurt Allah and His Messenger, Allah has cursed them in the present (life) (Literally: the lowly (life), i.e., the life of this world) and the Hereafter, and He has prepared for them a degrading torment *** And the ones who hurt male believers and female believers, without that they have earned it, then they have readily burdened themselves calumny and evident vice" [Surat Al-Ahzab: 57-58].
These cartoons hurt Allah and mock His Messenger and represent a severe hurt to every male and female believer. That's why the likes of those are promised a painful torment on the Day of Judgment, if they do not stop doing such act.
Our style of expression will be more severe and enduring than theirs, which is no more than cartoons that do not reflect anything except illusions existing no where but in the imagination of their author. We will address those (people) in the language of science, which they failed to use in addressing us! And we will tell them the reality of that merciful Prophet (PBUH).
I am not going to talk about the good manners and the wonderful attributes that the final Prophet had, because those do not have these manners and do not recognize it, but, we will direct a scientific and material speech to them, including the facts that this honored Prophet brought with him and are present in the Qur'an and recited fourteen centuries ago and up till now.
I tell those, who are proud of science and justice, because they represent technically advanced countries and they are democratic countries that believe in justice and rights, we say: the Qur'an, which you mock, was the first book to call for science and justice, and these two are the measures of success and continuity of any civilization.
Indeed, the first word sent down to that honored Prophet was "read" and this proves that Islam is the religion of science. While, the last word sent down of the Qur'an was "they will not be done injustice" and this proves that Islam is the religion of justice. Thus, what you boast today, our Prophet (PBUH) preceded you to it long centuries ago.
You say that you are the first to call for searching the history of universe and creatures and you are proud of this, but we ask you to read the saying of Allah (Exalted be He) in the Noble Qur'an, about an explicit and direct call to investigate the beginning of creation: "Say, “Travel in the earth, then look how He began creation. Thereafter Allah brings into being the last bringing up. Surely Allah is Ever-Determiner of everything" [Surat Al-Ankabut: 20]. This proves Qur'an's interest in investigation, contemplation, research and study.
Indeed, our Prophet (PBUH) has set a scientific basis for astronomy and cosmic phenomena, when people thought the sun eclipsed for the death of Ibrahim, the son of the Prophet (PBUH), so he said: (the sun and the moon are two signs of Allah's (Exalted be He) and they do not eclipse for the death or life of anybody). [Narrated by Al-Bukhari and Muslim].
These words of the Prophet of mercy (PBUH) came at a time when you used to believe that eclipse is an indication of the birth of a great person or his death, the fall of a governor or the loss of a battle.
At a time when Europe was full of priests, astrologers and charlatans and those were believed by most people then. At this time, our Prophet (PBUH) prohibited such acts as he said: (anyone who goes to a priest or a fortune-teller and believes him in what he says, he has disbelieved in what was sent down to Muhammad) [narrated by Ahmad].
At the time when you thought that the earth is stable and immobile, the Qur'an set a scientific fact confirming that everything in universe rotates in a specific orbit and this fact was not discovered except recently. He (Exalted be He) says about the earth, the sun and the moon: "and each is swimming in an orbit" [Surat Ya-sin: 40].
At a time, when Europe used to believe in the presence of a god for wind, a god for rain and a god for lightening, the Qur'an set a scientific basis for all these phenomena, which have not been discovered except a few years ago. So, if you want to read facts about the wind, read His saying (Exalted be He):"And We send the winds impregnating, (and) so We send down from the heaven water, then We give it to you to drink, and in no way can you even be its treasurers" [Surat Al-Hijr: 22]. Haven't you discovered the role of wind in impregnating clouds and rainfall, using your equipments and machines??
Moreover, if you want to know the engineering mechanism of lightening, which remained unknown for you until a few years ago, then, read the hadith of our Prophet (PBUH): (haven't you seen lightening; how it passes and returns in a blink of an eye?) [Narrated by Muslim]. Haven't your digital cameras captured photos of lightening and haven't you watched the lightening ray passing and returning, exactly as mentioned in the noble hadith?
The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) was the first man in history who called for medical research through many ahadith (sayings), he set by them the main bases of modern medicine. The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) says: (Allah has not created a disease without creating a cure for it) [narrated by Al-Bukhari]. This great hadith confirms the presence of a cure for the different sorts of illness and this means that if man searches for a treatment, he will find it. Don't your scientists apply this hadith in their researches on the treatment of many diseases, which were thought, in the past, to have no treatment??
Our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was the first one who talked about cosmic web in Allah's saying (Exalted be He): "And (by) the heaven comprising interwoven tracks" [Surat Adh-dhariyat: 7]. Interwoven tracks are derived from masterly woven fabric. Haven't you seen through your super computers the photo of this woven fabric of the universe?
Today, you are proud of having discovered the beginning of the evolution of the universe and you assert that this universe was one mass then its parts went apart through a big bang. You forgot that this Merciful Prophet (PBUH) preceded you to talking about this cosmic fact fourteen centuries ago, when no man on earth could imagine anything about the Big Bang. Allah (Exalted be He) says: "And have not the ones who disbelieved seen that the heavens and the earth were an integrated (mass), then We unseamed them" [Surat Al-Anbiya': 30].
And if we like, we will count hundreds, rather thousands of recently discovered scientific facts, which are all present in the Noble Qur'an and the sunnah (tradition) of the master of messengers (PBUH). Thus, can you read any of these, before you imagine who this Prophet, who Allah described as a mercy for the worlds was?
That's why we ask every one suffering from deafness not to criticize lovely sounds! Also, we ask every one suffering from blindness not to attack wonderful images! And we ask every one suffering from coryza not to object to the aromatic smell!
As the image of our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) will remain bright, beautiful and wonderful, no matter how hard skeptics try to distort it and the talk of our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) will remain the most beautiful and the sweetest talk, no matter what atheists try to do. Moreover, the light of Qur'an and the light of Allah will remain shiny and bright, no matter how hard the wrongdoers try to extinguish it. Allah (Exalted be He) says: "They would (like) to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths; and Allah refuses (anything) except to perfect His light, though the disbelievers hate (that)..
He (is The One) Who has sent His Messenger with the guidance and the religion of Truth that He may make it topmost over all religion, though the associators (Those who associate otherswith Allah) hate (that)" [Surat At-Tawbah: 32-33].
O Allah, You are stronger than all of those, and You are able to reply, stop and judge them and those who stand behind them, as You said in Your great book: "Surely the ones who hurt Allah and His Messenger, Allah has cursed them in the present (life) (Literally: the lowly (life), i.e., the life of this world) and the Hereafter, and He has prepared for them a degrading torment." [Surat Al-Ahzab: 57].
And we say as Allah (Exalted be He) said:
"Say, “Mock on; surely Allah is bringing out whatever you beware"…
This is Islam
Islam (Arabic: الإسلام al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] (
listen)[note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله, Allah), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah collected in the hadith) ofMuhammad, the last Prophet of Islam. The word Islam means ‘Submission (to God)’,[1] and an adherent of Islam is called aMuslim (see Islam (term)).
listen)[note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله, Allah), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah collected in the hadith) ofMuhammad, the last Prophet of Islam. The word Islam means ‘Submission (to God)’,[1] and an adherent of Islam is called aMuslim (see Islam (term)).Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable.[2] Muslims also believe that Islam is the completed and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through the prophets Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been changed and corrupted over time,[3] but consider the Quran to be both unaltered and the final revelation from God. Religious practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five obligatory acts of worship, and the following of Islamic law(Arabic: شريعة Šarīʿah), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, encompassing everything from banking and welfare to warfare and the environment.[4][5]
The majority of Muslims belong to one of two denominations, with 75-90% being Sunni and 10-20% being Shi’a,[6][7][8] in addition to a small minority belonging to other sects. About 13% of Muslims live inIndonesia, the largest Muslim country,[9] 25% in South Asia,[9] 20% in the Middle East,[10] 2% inCentral Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa.[11]Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of the Caribbean. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With about 1.57 billion Muslims comprising about 23% of the world’s population[11] (see Islam by country), Islam is the second-largest religion and arguably the fastest-growing religion in the world.[12][13][14][15][16]
The Kaaba, in Mecca Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity
Etymology and meaning
Main article: S-L-M
The word islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m, and is derived from the Arabic verb ’áslama, which means “to give up, to desert, to surrender (to God).”[17][18] Another word derived from the same root is salaam (سلام) which means ‘Peace‘.[19][20] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by worshipping Him, following His commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur’an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: “Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam.”[21] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as “religion”): “Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion.”[22] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[23] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[24][clarification needed]Articles of faith
Main articles: Aqidah and Iman
God
Main article: God in Islam
See also: Oneness of God (Islam) and Allah
Allah means God in Arabic
The Qur’an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[37] The Qur’an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the “sourcebook of Islamic principles and values”.[38] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Qur’an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur’anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[39]
When Muslims speak in the abstract about “the Qur’an”, they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur’an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original’s inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur’an, or “interpretations of its meaning”, not as the Qur’an itself.[40]
The Qur’an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur’anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to ridwān.[44] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[45]
The term Allāh is by Muslims used to refer to the one God while ʾilāh is the term used for a diety or a god in general.[25] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance “Tanrı” in Turkish or “Khodā” in Persian.
Islam’s fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd. God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur’an as:[26]
“Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.” (112:1-4)
Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it topolytheism but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being al-rahman, meaning “the compassionate” and al-rahim, meaning “the merciful” (SeeNames of God in Islam).[27]
Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[2] He is viewed as a personal God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[28] and responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[29][6] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, between God and the creation that he brought into being by the sheer command “‘Be’ and it is.”[30][6]
Angels
Main article: Islamic view of angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means “messenger”, like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur’an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[31] Angels’ duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person’s actions, and taking a person’s soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man’s behalf. The Qur’an describes angels as “messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…”[32]
Revelations
Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur’an
See also: History of the Qur’an
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and theInjil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[3] The Qur’an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the greatest literary work in the Arabic language. [33][34][35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur’an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[36] The Qur’an was reportedly written down by Muhammad’s companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph.
The Qur’an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[37] The Qur’an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the “sourcebook of Islamic principles and values”.[38] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Qur’an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur’anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[39]
When Muslims speak in the abstract about “the Qur’an”, they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur’an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original’s inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur’an, or “interpretations of its meaning”, not as the Qur’an itself.[40]
Prophets
Main article: Prophets of Islam
Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: نبي) as those humans chosen by God to be His messengers. According to the Qur’an [41] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the “Will of God” to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God’s messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur’an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses andJesus, among others.[42] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the “normative” example of Muhammad’s life is called the Sunnah (literally “trodden path”). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith (“reports”), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi’i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad’s actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur’an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century ah (9th century ace), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[6]Resurrection and judgment
Main article: Qiyama
Belief in the “Day of Resurrection”, Qiyamah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, “Day of Judgment” and as-sā`a, “the Last Hour”) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur’an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur’an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[43]The Qur’an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur’anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to ridwān.[44] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[45]
Predestination
Main article: Predestination in Islam
In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa’l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur’anic verses such as “Say: ‘Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector’…”[46] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written inal-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the “Preserved Tablet”.[47]Duties and practices
Five pillars
Main article: Five Pillars of Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam[48]
The Five Pillars of Islam are:
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The wordmosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, “collective” mosque (masjid jāmi`).[53] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[54]
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur’an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur’an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions andprohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[60] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri[clarification needed]have since died out.[61][62]
Fiqh, or “jurisprudence”, is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh (“legal theory”, or “principles of jurisprudence”). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur’an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi’i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[63]
- The shahadah,[49] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: “‘ašhadu ‘al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa ‘ašhadu ‘anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh“, or “I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.” This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[50]
- Salah, or ritual prayer.
- Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan.
- Zakat, or alms-giving.
- The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Prayer
Main article: Salah
See also: Mosque
Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة; pl. ṣalawāt), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur’an.[52]A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The wordmosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, “collective” mosque (masjid jāmi`).[53] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[54]
Fasting
Main article: Sawm
Further information: Sawm of Ramadan
Fasting, called “Sawm” (Arabic: صوم), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[55]Alms-giving
“Zakāt” (Arabic: زكاة [zæˈkæːh], sometimes “Zakāh/Zekat”[56]) is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a “trust from God’s bounty”. The Qur’an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah).[57]Pilgrimage
Main article: Hajj
See also: Islamic view of Abraham
The pilgrimage, called the Hajj (Arabic: حج Ḥajj) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[58]Law and Jurisprudence
The Sharia (literally “the path leading to the watering place”) is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and “constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief”.[59]Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur’an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur’an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions andprohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[60] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri[clarification needed]have since died out.[61][62]
Fiqh, or “jurisprudence”, is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh (“legal theory”, or “principles of jurisprudence”). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur’an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi’i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[63]
Jurists
There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam but generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims pratcise ijtihad whereby they don’t accept the authority of clergy.[64]Ottoman miniature painters
Etiquette and diet
Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with “as-salamu `alaykum” (“peace be unto you”), saying bismillah (“in the name of God“) before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam.Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah (“funeral prayer”) over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from an animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[65]Family life
See also: Women in Islam
Muslim girls pose at the Istiqlal Mosque of Jakarta. Many Muslim women do not show their hair in public.
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur’an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman’s share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[66] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[67]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word “divorce”.[68] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah).
Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[69]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[77][78] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[79]
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[78] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi‘s[80]occultation in 868 AD.[81]
Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur’an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[82] For the last 22 years of his life, in 610, beginning at age 40, Muhammad started receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[83]
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra(“emigration”) to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political andreligious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badrin 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[84] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.[85]
Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the “Islamic Golden Age“, with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[99] The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh’habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi’i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[100] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabisought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[101] Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi’ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.[102] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[103]
Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered “the first hospitals” in the modern sense of the word[104] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[105][106] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[107] The origins of thedoctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa ‘l-ifttd (“license to teach and issue legal opinions”) inmadrasahs which taught law.[108] The first institutions for the care of mentally ill people were also established in the Muslim world.[109] During this time, standards of experimental and quantificationtechniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[110][111] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the “world’s first true scientist.”[112] Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[113][114]
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim worldwhere the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinentin the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu’tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu’tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph’s titular authority.[115] During this time, expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[18]
The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessionswere lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these acquisitions were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[116]
In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamlukstook control in an uprising in 1250[117] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[118] TheBlack Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century,[119] probably brought by merchants making use of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica.[120]
From the 14th to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi’a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early 18th century.
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[123] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of theMasnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur’an.[124]
After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[125] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early 18th century the Hindu Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weakened by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century.
It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[126] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[127] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[128] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[129] The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[130][131]
The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[133]
In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden‘s al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam’s sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for “independent thought on religious matters”.[134]
Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu’ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[135] Many authors have criticised Islam (as well as other religions) as being sexist, intolerant, and warlike. Thinking that Islam is at odds with modern science, and more particularlyevolutionary biology, Richard Dawkins wishes to popularize “evolution in the Islamic world.”[136] In his book titled God Is Not Great, which criticizes all religions, Christopher Hitchens expresses his opinion by stating that Islam is “dogmatic,” and “the fact remains that Islam’s core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd.” Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[137] Syed Ameer Ali,[138] Ahmed Deedat[139] and Yusuf Estes.[140]
Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[141] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[142] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[143]In contrast, Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman have entered the “Islam in Europe” debate. Berman identifies a “reactionary turn in the intellectual world” represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.[144]
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad’s fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[182]
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr(Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[183]Similar to the Jewish calendar, days in the Islamic calendar last from sunset to sunset.[184]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word “divorce”.[68] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah).
Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[69]
Government
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between “matters of church” and “matters of state”; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called “Grievance courts” over which they had sole control.[citation needed] As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[70]Military
Main articles: Jihad and Islamic military jurisprudence
Jihad means “to strive or struggle” (in the way of God) and is considered the “Sixth Pillar of Islam” by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[71] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as “exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation.” Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one’s own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.[72] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[73][74] Jihad also refers to one’s striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[75] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi’a and Sufis, distinguish between the “greater jihad”, which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the “lesser jihad”, defined as warfare.[76]Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[77][78] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[79]
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[78] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi‘s[80]occultation in 868 AD.[81]
History
Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam
Muhammad (610–632)
Main article: Muhammad
See also: Early social changes under Islam
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the site of Muhammad‘stomb.
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra(“emigration”) to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political andreligious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badrin 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[84] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.[85]
Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)
Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united thetribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad’s death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad’s companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr’s immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or “Wars of Apostasy”.[86]The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā’ ar-rāshidūn (“Rightly Guided Caliphs”). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[87]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the “First Fitna”), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu’awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[88]
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi’a.[89] After Mu’awiyah’s death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the “Second Fitna“. Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and theNarbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[90] One of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic conquest, is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) founded in 670 by the Arab conqueror and Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi [91]and considered as the ancestor and model for all the mosques in the western Islamic world [92] · .[93] Themuladies (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[94] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[95]
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[96] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad’s uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi’a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[97]
Golden Age (750–1258)
Main article: Islamic Golden Age
Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization.[98]
Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered “the first hospitals” in the modern sense of the word[104] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[105][106] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[107] The origins of thedoctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa ‘l-ifttd (“license to teach and issue legal opinions”) inmadrasahs which taught law.[108] The first institutions for the care of mentally ill people were also established in the Muslim world.[109] During this time, standards of experimental and quantificationtechniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[110][111] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the “world’s first true scientist.”[112] Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[113][114]
Fragmentation and invasions
Main articles: Crusades and Reconquista
Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Ilkhanate
The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture inSpain.
The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessionswere lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these acquisitions were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[116]
In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamlukstook control in an uprising in 1250[117] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[118] TheBlack Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century,[119] probably brought by merchants making use of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica.[120]
New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918)
In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these“Ghazi emirates” and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts ofGreece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry.[121] The Ottomans launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[122] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim. Around the 18th century, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages.
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[123] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of theMasnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur’an.[124]
After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[125] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early 18th century the Hindu Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weakened by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century.
It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[126] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[127] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[128] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[129] The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[130][131]
Modern times (1918–present)
Further information: Fall of the Ottoman Empire, Arab Revolt, Arab–Israeli conflict, Islam and secularism, and Iranian revolution
By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.[132]The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[133]
Islamic revival and Islamist movements
Further information: Islamic revival and Islamism
The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to outside cultural influences, bringing potential changes to Muslim societies. In response, new Islamic “revivalist” movements were initiated as a counter movement to non-Islamic ideas. Groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance.
The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna, India.
Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu’ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[135] Many authors have criticised Islam (as well as other religions) as being sexist, intolerant, and warlike. Thinking that Islam is at odds with modern science, and more particularlyevolutionary biology, Richard Dawkins wishes to popularize “evolution in the Islamic world.”[136] In his book titled God Is Not Great, which criticizes all religions, Christopher Hitchens expresses his opinion by stating that Islam is “dogmatic,” and “the fact remains that Islam’s core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd.” Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[137] Syed Ameer Ali,[138] Ahmed Deedat[139] and Yusuf Estes.[140]
Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[141] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[142] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[143]In contrast, Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman have entered the “Islam in Europe” debate. Berman identifies a “reactionary turn in the intellectual world” represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.[144]
Culture
Art
Main article: Islamic art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[179] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.Architecture
Main article: Islamic architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque(four-iwan and hypostyle).[180] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, hasRoman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[181] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.Calendar
Main article: Islamic calendar
The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle.
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr(Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[183]Similar to the Jewish calendar, days in the Islamic calendar last from sunset to sunset.[184]
References
Citations
- ^ “USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts”. Usc.edu.http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ a b
- ^ a b See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. “Muhammad”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. * Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. “Tahrif”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Esposito (2002b), p.17
- ^ See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* “Shari’ah”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ a b c d e “Islām”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ a b “Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population”. Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009.http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- ^ a b c “Religions”. CIA. The World Factbook. 2010.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ a b Miller (2009), pp.8,17
- ^ See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19
- ^ a b c d Miller, Tracy, ed (10 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population. Pew Research Center.http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
- ^ “Islam Today”. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25. “Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world’s fastest growing religion and will soon be the world’s largest…“
- ^ “No God But God”. Thomas W. Lippman. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008.http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25. “Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world’s great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.“
- ^ “Understanding Islam”. Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008.http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/understanding-islam.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ “The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions”. Foreign Policy. May 14, 2007.http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3835. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ “Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents”. Adherents.com.http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
- ^ “Lane’s lexicon” (PDF). http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
- ^ a b L. Gardet; J. Jomier. “Islam”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. “Islam”. Online Etymology Dictionary.http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Islam. Retrieved 2007-11-22.
- ^ L. Gardet; J. Jomier. “Islam”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. ; “Lane’s lexicon” (PDF).http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf.
- ^ See:
- ^ Qur’an 5:3, Qur’an 3:19, Qur’an 3:83
- ^ See:
- ^ Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192
- ^ See:
- “Islam and Christianity”, Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christiansand Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
- L. Gardet. “Allah”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ See:
- ^ Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
- ^ Qur’an 50:16
- ^ Qur’an 2:186
- ^ Qur’an 2:117
- ^ Qur’an 21:19–20, Qur’an 35:1
- ^ See:
- ^ Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page.
- ^ Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x.
- ^ Maurice Bucaille, THE BIBLE, THE QUR’AN AND SCIENCE, 1978, ISBN 8172311613, p. 125
- ^ Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
- ^ See:
- “Islam”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- “Qur’an”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Esposito (2004), p.79
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
- “Tafsir”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Teece (2003), pp.12,13
- C. Turner (2006), p.42
- “Qur’an”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. : The word Qur’an was invented and first used in the Qur’an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
- ^ “The Koran”. Quod.lib.umich.edu. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/koran/koran-idx?type=proximity&q1=Imran&operator1=Near&amt1=80&q2=Ibrahim&operator2=Near&amt2=80&q3=&size=First+100. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
- ^ See:
- Momem (1987), p.176
- “Islam”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- “Resurrection”, The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
- “Avicenna”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as “Avicenna”.
- L. Gardet. “Qiyama”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Qur’an 9:72
- ^ See:
- Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
- “Heaven”, The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
- Asma Afsaruddin. “Garden”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an Online.
- “Paradise”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Qur’an 9:51
- D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: “The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events ‘being written’ or ‘being in a book’ before they happen: ‘Say: “Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…” ’ ”
- Ahmet T. Karamustafa. “Fate”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an Online. : The verb qadaraliterally means “to measure, to determine”. Here it is used to mean that “God measures and orders his creation”.
- ^ See:
- Farah (2003), pp.119–122
- Patton (1900), p.130
- ^ See:
- Momem (1987), p.178
- “Pillars of Islam”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
- ^ See:
- Farah (1994), p.135
- Momen (1987), p.178
- “Islam”, Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
- ArticleClick.com
- ^ Mulla Bashir Rahim, An Introduction to Islam, by Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
- Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
- Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
- Momen (1987), p.178
- ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge’s Egypt: A Classic 19th Century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 0-486-41721-2.
- ^ See:
- J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al.. “Masdjid”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- “Mosque”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Qur’an 2:184
- Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
- “Islam”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- “For whom fasting is mandatory”. Compendium of Muslim Texts. USC-MSA.http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ The reason for the ending -t has to do with Arabic orthography and grammar; see Tāʾ marbūṭafor more information. As a loan word in the languages of non-Arabic speaking Muslims, it is often pronounced with the ending -t in all instances.
- ^ See:
- ^ See:
- Farah (1994), pp.145–147
- Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
- “Hajj”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ “Shari’ah”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Menski (2006), p.290
- B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon. “Hadd”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- N. Calder; M. B. Hooker. “Sharia”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Berg, Herbert. “Islamic Law.” Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.
- ^ Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
- ^ Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
- ^ Weiss (2002), pp.3,161
- ^ See:
- Qur’an 5:5
- Curtis (2005), p.164
- Esposito (2002b), p.111
- Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
- Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws
- Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer
- Ersilia Francesca. “Slaughter”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an Online.
- ^ “al-Mar’a”. Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^
- Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
- The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
- Esposito (1998) p. 79
- ^ *”Talak”. Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^
- Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
- Harald Motzki. “Marriage and Divorce”. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an.
- Lori Peek. “Marriage Practices”. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures.
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2004), p. 84
- Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845
- Lewis (2003), p. 100
- ^ Esposito (2003), p.93
- ^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18
- ^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18
- ^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
- ^ See:
- Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
- Esposito (2003), p.93
- “jihad”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Firestone (1999) p.17
- “Djihad”, Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Firestone (1999) p.17
- ^ a b “Djihād”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
- ^ cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
- ^ See:
- Esposito (1998), p.12
- Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
- F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
- “Muhammad”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- ^ See:
- F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
- Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
- ^ F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. “Muhammad”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Hourani (2003), p.22
- Lapidus (2002), p.32
- Madelung (1996), p.43
- Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
- ^ See
- Holt (1977a), p.74
- L. Gardet; J. Jomier. “Islam”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
- ^ Waines (2003) p.46
- ^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
- ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, ”Historic cities of the Islamic world”, page 260. BRILL, 2007. Books.google.com. 2007. ISBN 9789004153882. http://books.google.com/?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA260&dq=mosque+of+kairouan+uqba+670#v=onepage&q=mosque%20of%20kairouan%20uqba%20670&f=false. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ Nnamdi Elleh, ”Architecture and power in Africa”, page 115. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. Books.google.fr. 2002. ISBN 9780275976798. http://books.google.com/?id=aKoKHmuexywC&pg=PA115&dq=great+mosque+of+kairouan+western+islamic+world#v=onepage&q=great%20mosque%20of%20kairouan%20western%20islamic%20world&f=false. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance, page 104. Taylor & Francis, 1983.
- ^ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
- “Sufism”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Hawting (2000), p.4
- ^ Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83
- ^ “Great Mosque of Kairouan”. Muslim Heritage.com. 2003-04-24.http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=358. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ See:
- Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
- Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
- Lapidus (2002), p.56
- Lewis (1993), p.84
- L. Gardet; J. Jomier. “Islam”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Lapidus (2002), p.86
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.160
- Waines (2003) p.126,127
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
- Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
- “Sufism”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41
- ^ Micheau, Françoise. “The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East”. pp. 991–2 , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007)
- ^ Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). “From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue”. Current Sociology 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837
- ^ Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 A.D.. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN9004061312
- ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242
- ^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). “Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West”. Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. http://jstor.org/stable/604423
- ^ The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate http://www.seed.slb.com/subcontent.aspx?id=30658
- ^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 84.
“Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty.” - ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003), “Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision”, International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:
“According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable.” - ^ BBC News The ‘first true scientist.’
- ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
- ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
- “Abbasid Dynasty”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.292
- “Islamic World”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves. Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
- ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 0313341028.
- ^ Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science
- ^ See
- Holt (1977a), p.263
- Lapidus (2002), p.250
- “Istanbul”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
- L. Gardet; J. Jomier. “Islam”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
- ^ “Islamic Art”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press
- ^ See:
- Lapidus (2002), p.572
- Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
- ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
- ^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
- ^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708
- ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
- ^ “New Turkey”. Weekly.ahram.org.eg. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
- ^ “Organization of the Islamic Conference”. BBC News. 2008-09-18.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
- Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
- ^ See:
- Rippin (2001), p.288
- Timothy Garton Ash (October 5, 2006). “Islam in Europe”. The New York Review of Books(NYRB). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371.
- ^ Henderson, Mark (2009-08-22). “Professor Richard Dawkins wants to convert Islamic world to evolution”. The Times (London).http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article6805889.ece.
- ^ For example see Major Themes of the Qur’an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur’an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
- ^ For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as “probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed”. See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
- ^ Westerlund (2003)
- ^ Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu (2003-11-17). “Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images”. Advance, University of Connecticut.http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm.
- ^ Bernstein, Richard (2001-11-03). “Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another”. The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482. Retrieved 2007-05-14.
- ^ See:
- Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
- Watt (1974), p.231
- ^ Ernst (2004), p.11
- ^ Berman, Paul (June 4, 2007). “Who’s Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism.”. The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/politics/story.html?id=fd52e6a4-efc5-42fd-983b-1282a16ac8dd.
- ^ See:
- Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
- J. Robson. “Hadith”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- D. W. Brown. “Sunna”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Sunnite
- ^ From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
- “Shariah”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- “Sunnite”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
- ^ See
- Lapidus (2002), p.46
- “Imam”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- “Shi’ite”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ See:
- Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
- Nasr (1994), p.466
- ^ See:
- Kramer (1987), Syria’s Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254
- Shia branches
- ^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
- ^ “Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism’s Many Paths”. Uga.edu.http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2003), p.302
- Malik (2006), p.3
- B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
- “Afghanistan: A Country Study”. Country Studies. U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). p. 150. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ “The Fourteenth-Century’s Reformer / Mujaddid”, from the “Call of Islam”, by Maulana Muhammad Ali
- ^ “Claims of Hadhrat Ahmad, Chapter Two”. Alislam.org. 1904-06-24.http://www.alislam.org/books/3in1/chap2/index.html. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ “Reflection of all the Prophets”. Alislam.org.http://www.alislam.org/books/truth/reflection.html. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ “Future of Revelation, Part 7″. Alislam.org.http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_7_section_1.html. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ “The Removal of a Misunderstanding”. Alislam.org.http://www.alislam.org/books/misunderstandingremoved.html. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ The Ahmadi Muslim Community. Who are the Ahmadi Muslims and what do they believe? Waqar Ahmad Ahmedi gives a brief introduction to the Ahmadi branch of Islam. Times Online. May 27, 2008.
- ^ “Ahmadiyya Debate”. Parliament of United Kingdom.http://www.parliamentlive.tv/Main/Player.aspx?meetingId=6641. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
- ^ See:
- UGA.edu, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction
- J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
- “al-Ibāḍiyya”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ “Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction”. Uga.edu.http://www.uga.edu/islam/ibadis.html. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ Miller (2009), p.11
- ^ Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kassim Kone (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 172. ISBN 0313328250, 9780313328251page=1. http://books.google.com/?id=oj7krKWyVNAC. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today’s world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0567094529.
- ^ “Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online”. Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1087. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ Secrets of Islam – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
- ^ Miller (2009), pp.15,17
- ^ “Number of Muslim by country”. nationmaster.com.http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
- ^ “CIA – The World Factbook – China”. Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
- ^ “China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)”. State.gov.http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
- ^ “NW China region eyes global Muslim market”. China Daily. 2008-07-09.http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/09/content_6831389.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
- ^ “Muslim Media Network”. Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24.http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
- ^ Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
- “Islamic World”. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- “Muslims in Europe: Country guide”. BBC News (BBC). 2005-12-23.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm. Retrieved 2006-09-28.
- “Religion In Britain”. National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13.http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293. Retrieved 2006-08-27.
- ^ The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
- ^ Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3
- ^ “Islam”, The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
- ^ Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ”A history of African societies to 1870”, page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Books.google.com. 1997. ISBN 9780521455992. http://books.google.com/?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PA175&dq=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20roman%20columns&f=false. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ See:
- Adil (2002), p.288
- F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
- B. van Dalen; R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al.. “Tarikh̲”. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
- ^ Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com
